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NEWS and VIEWS

News, views, comments and suggestions on varieties and seeds are included in this section. It is also a forum for discussion among professionals in the seed sector.

Seed Policy - a Widening Arena

Seed is the most important primary input in agriculture and as such has become a major issue in agricultural policy. Seed quality, especially the genes embedded in the seed, are important factors for determining yield potential, yield stability and product quality.

In many developing countries, seed became the subject of agricultural policy only from the 1960s following the 'green revolution'. Seed was seen as an important vehicle for the dissemination of novel technology, both the technology embedded in the seed itself (genetic) and the technology that accompanied the new genes such as chemical fertilizers and plant pesticides. In developed countries, by that time, seed had turned from a technology carrier to a commercial commodity. Furthermore, the concept of seed as the carrier of valuable genetic resources gained importance, especially in the international forum where attempts are made to give a monetary value to this function.

For several decades, seed policies in developing countries were designed by seed specialists, with the aim to allow the sector to develop in a linear fashion, with a growing role for private enterprise in seed production and marketing, and finally in plant breeding and quality control. In the 1980s a four-stage seed industry development concept was proposed:

• Stage 1: no formal seed industry exists because no improved varieties are available;
• Stage 2: farmers start to use varieties from formal breeding but most seed is still produced by farmers;
• Stage 3: emergence of private seed sector along with public enterprises; and
• Stage 4: most seed purchased and varieties bred by private research.

Policy options based on such analysis are quite straightforward. In order to move a seed industry from stage 1 to 2, investments in plant breeding have to be made. In stage 2 the quickest way to increase the use of 'improved' seed is to develop public seed production. Stage 3 requires measures to stimulate private investment in the seed industry and stage 4 requires reducing the use of own seed by farmers through education or regulation.

Increasing complexity
The recognition given to farmers' methods of seed selection, saving and exchange led to the concept of integrated seed systems, whereby the strengths of both formal and local knowledge are combined in various operations within the seed system.

This concept is advanced in terms of farmers' participation in plant breeding, seed system development, germplasm conservation and various other issues. The resulting diversity of approaches makes it impossible to simply follow the historical development and design a blueprint for seed policy.

The first problem of seed policy development arises from the three main functions of seed (i.e. the technology transfer function, the commercial commodity function, and the carrier of genetic diversity function). The second problem is the globalization of policies that have an impact on seed.

The technology transfer function of seed requires free access to new varieties for distribution and exchange from farmer to farmer. This requires subsidizing seed production programs based on public sector breeding with a limited scope for seed regulation.

Emphasis on the commercial aspects of seed may contradict the developmental objectives because it has to recognize the existence of commercial opportunities for seed producers which differ among crops and user groups, and that it requires the protection of markets (breeders' rights etc.) hindering the free flow of technology.

The concept of seed as the carrier of valuable genetic resources that need to be conserved for future generations leads to policies directed towards the sustainable use of genetic diversity on-farm, possibly conflicting with trends towards uniformity oriented modernization and commercialization approaches.

At the international level, these three parallel developments meet in the seed policy debate.

In the field of agriculture, the recognition of the role of farmers in the domestication of crops and the selection of varieties led to the concept of farmers' rights promoting the role of farming communities in development and in the conservation and sustainable use of genetic resources.

In the international aid programs, the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank, through the Structural Adjustment Programs obliged countries to reduce public spending and actively support privatization, thus reducing possibilities for countries to support public research and public seed programs.

In the area of the international agreements on the environment, the Convention on Biological Diversity established the concept of national sovereignty over genetic resources and obliging countries to conserve these valuable materials.

In the area of economic development, the World Trade Organization developed far-reaching obligations to the member states for liberalization of the economy and on the recognition of intellectual property rights, including on plant varieties.

The Way Forward
The conflict between the three functions, and the emerging international debate on the seed sector has widened the policy domain. Seed technologists are loosing ground as the main players in formulation of seed policy. Especially when it comes to translating policies into practice, e.g. through legislation, the widening of the policy arena makes the process much more complex, and subject to changing power relations.

• · At the national level, the recognition of local seed systems and alternative ways to improve the quality of seed used by farmers brings in farmers and NGOs into the seed policy debate with varying success.
• The economic agreements under the World Trade Organization need to be implemented without challenging the environmental and equity issues. The requirements for ownership rights over plant varieties lead to debates about the ideal scope of protection in order to safeguard each country's development needs.
• The implementation of the obligations for conservation and sustainable use of genetic resources at community and national levels (IT/GRFA and CBD), have to be designed in such a way that they do not impede development and commercialization strategies.

These developments involve not only the Ministry of Agriculture in seed policy matters (and its stakeholders), because where the FAO falls under the mandate of that ministry, the CBD deals with 'Environment' and the WTO with 'Commerce'. These differences essentially lead to the need for strong and coherent national policies rather than ministries having to satisfy the needs of their specific target groups and stakeholders.

The OECD has developed its Regulatory Impact Analysis to tackle the problem of integration of multiple policies, especially those concerning economic efficiency, trade, equity and the environment. The model not only creates an analytical tool, but also as means to improve transparency of the policy-making processes, and the accountability of policy makers. Lack of transparency remains a major bottleneck in several countries, resulting in a sub-optimal use of knowledge and views of different stakeholders in the policy domain.

A second challenge is to design resulting regulatory tools by balancing the various objectives properly, without stepping into the trap of extremely complicated regulatory systems and their bureaucratic implications. While this balance necessarily has to be found at the national level and that these will differ per country, the international obligations still need to be met objectively. A complete harmonisation of policy and regulations at international levels may be hard to achieve, but a strong harmonisation at the level of technical implementation will be a significant gain. N.P. Louwaars, Plant Research International, P.O.Box 16, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Nethelands; Email:N.P.Louwaars@plant.wag-ur.nl

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Harmonization of Seed Regulations in Africa: The Central and East Africa Initiative

Introduction
Most countries in Africa have established crop variety development programs and seed delivery systems. Most of these organizations are in the public sector and are often less efficient and unable to meet national seed demand in their respective countries.

In East and Central Africa, only Kenya has a relatively developed seed sector. The seed delivery system in the rest of the countries is dominated by the public sector and NGOs. Moreover, in each country the seed industry faces different standards and regulations restricting regional trade in varieties and seeds.

The Central and East Africa Initiative
A number of initiatives are currently underway across various sub-regions of Africa to harmonize seed policies and regulations (see Seed Info No 23 for the SADC initiative). The objectives of the initiatives are to facilitate: (a) easier movement of seed and germplasm across national boundaries; (b) creation of regional seed markets, leading to economies of scale; (c) increased investment by private and public entities; and (d) improved services to farmers for increased productivity in agriculture.

Harmonization of Seed Rules and Regulations
The East and Central Africa initiative is well advanced and is coordinated by the East and Central Africa Program for Agricultural Policy Analysis (ECAPAPA). ECAPAPA is a program within the Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in East and Central Africa (ASARECA), an umbrella organization of NARS from Burundi, Congo, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar Rwanda, Tanzania, Uganda and Sudan.

In ECA region, the need for harmonization has been long recognized which led into a launching of pilot project entitled 'Harmonization of Seed Policies and Regulations in Eastern Africa'. The project was approved by the Committee of Directors of ASARECA and funded by USAID/REDSO and its implementation began on a pilot phase in three ECA countries (Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda) in September 1999 with ultimate objective to achieve harmonization in all member countries of the ASARECA.

The project focused on five key areas to achieve harmonization which includes: (i) variety evaluation, release and registration, (ii) seed certification, (iii) phytosanitary regulations, (iv) plant variety protection, and (v) laws and regulations governing seed trade, and seed enterprise development both local and foreign.

National Consultative Workshops
The project's mission is to facilitate the movement and supply of quality seed to farmers in the EAC countries through harmonization of seed policies and regulations in member countries. The project adopted a long consultative process as follows:

•  Appointment and orientation of National Resource Persons (NRPs); one each from Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda in August/September 1999
• Review of the (country and other countries') seed laws, regulations and standards by the NRPs
• National consultative workshops organized by the NRPs in October/November 1999, to inform and consult national stakeholders
• NRPs and ASARECA/ECAPAPA Secretariat consultative workshop in February 2000 to review NRPs reports and recommendations from the national stakeholders consultative workshops
• National workshops (one in each country) held between 28 February and 14 March 2000 to present issues for harmonization and draw national responses mainly for decision makers in the public and private sectors

Regional Workshops
The first Regional Workshop was held 4-8 April 2000 in Entebbe, Uganda to address the following three main issues for the harmonization process based on the outcomes of the national workshops:

• Variety evaluation, release and registration
• Seed certification procedures and standards
• Phytosanitary regulations and procedures

The second Regional Workshop was held from 26-30 June 2000 in Arusha, Tanzania to address:

• Outstanding issues from the first Regional Workshop
• Import and export procedures and plant variety protection
• Regional coordinating mechanisms to implement and monitor agreements reached in the two regional workshops 

Achievements to Date
Substantial progress has been achieved in harmonization of seed policies and regulations in the three countries. The most important achievements are:

• Reducing the mandatory three years of testing for new varieties. Officials now agreed to accept breeder's data including data from at least one main season in not less than three locations
• Reducing phytosanitary restrictions imposed on 10 most important crops from 33 to three
• Establishing a Seed Regional Working Group to implement agreed standards and procedures for the region
• Providing a forum for public and private sectors to create awareness as partners in the development of the seed sector
• Providing opportunities for scientists, public and private sector officials in the three countries to meet, exchange experiences and build trust amongst them

The Expansion Phase
The process is now being extended to the neighboring countries of Burundi, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Rwanda and Sudan. Consultations have been made to assess the eligibility of these countries through comprehensive seed sector reviews focusing mainly on the regulatory systems. The first meeting was organized in 2001.

Conclusion
Since the inception of the initiative in 1999, Tanzania and Uganda have experienced increased investment in the seed sector. In Uganda, the number of seed companies increased from one in 1999 to 9 in 2001. There is increased movement of seed among the East African Communities buoyed by the development and also by the formal establishment of the Community. The countries are capitalizing on the comparative advantages that exist among themselves. I.J. Minde, ECAPAPA, Plot 13, John Babiiha Road, P.O. Box 765, Entebbe, Uganda; E-mail: ecapapa@imul.com.